![]() Associated with the viral envelope are at least three structural proteins: The membrane protein (M) and the envelope protein (E) are involved in virus assembly, whereas the spike protein (S) mediates virus entry into host cells. The genome is packed inside a helical capsid formed by the nucleocapsid protein (N) and further surrounded by an envelope. They have the largest genome among all RNA viruses, typically ranging from 27 to 32 kb. Coronaviruses are large, enveloped, positive-stranded RNA viruses. Representative gamma-and deltacoronaviruses include avian infectious bronchitis coronavirus (IBV) and porcine deltacoronavirus (PdCV), respectively. Representative betacoronaviruses include SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, bat coronavirus HKU4, mouse hepatitis coronavirus (MHV), bovine coronavirus (BCoV), and human coronavirus OC43. Representative alphacoronaviruses include human coronavirus NL63 (HCoV-NL63), porcine transmissible gastroenteritis coronavirus (TGEV), PEDV, and porcine respiratory coronavirus (PRCV). Among them, alpha-and betacoronaviruses infect mammals, gammacoronaviruses infect avian species, and deltacoronaviruses infect both mammalian and avian species. They can be classified into four genera: Alphacoronavirus, Betacoronavirus, Gammacoronavirus, and Deltacoronavirus ( Figure 1a). Understanding the virology of coronaviruses and controlling their spread have important implications for global health and economic stability.Ĭoronaviruses belong to the family Coronaviridae in the order Nidovirales ( 10, 11). Therefore, health threats from coronaviruses are constant and long-term. Coronaviruses are capable of adapting to new environments through mutation and recombination with relative ease and hence are programmed to alter host range and tissue tropism efficiently ( 12– 14). In general, coronaviruses cause widespread respiratory, gastrointestinal, and central nervous system diseases in humans and other animals, threatening human health and causing economic loss ( 10, 11). Since 2013, porcine epidemic diarrhea coronavirus (PEDV) has swept throughout the United States, causing an almost 100% fatality rate in piglets and wiping out more than 10% of America’s pig population in less than a year ( 7– 9). Since 2012, Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) has infected more than 1,700 people, with a fatality rate of ~36% ( 5, 6). From 2002 to 2003, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) infected 8,000 people, with a fatality rate of ~10% ( 1– 4). I further discuss the evolution of these two critical functions of coronavirus spike proteins, receptor recognition and membrane fusion, in the context of the corresponding functions from other viruses and host cells.Ĭoronaviruses pose serious health threats to humans and other animals. This article reviews current knowledge about the structures and functions of coronavirus spike proteins, illustrating how the two S1 domains recognize different receptors and how the spike proteins are regulated to undergo conformational transitions. The transition from prefusion to postfusion conformation of the spike protein must be triggered, leading to membrane fusion. The spike protein exists in two structurally distinct conformations, prefusion and postfusion. Two domains in S1 from different coronaviruses recognize a variety of host receptors, leading to viral attachment. It first binds to a receptor on the host cell surface through its S1 subunit and then fuses viral and host membranes through its S2 subunit. Figure 5 describes an important clinical phenomenon I have seen in my practice where a vaccinated patient contracts COVID-19 (or vice versa) and then sustains serious thromboembolic complications.The coronavirus spike protein is a multifunctional molecular machine that mediates coronavirus entry into host cells. Lesgards et al have recently published an excellent paper summarizing the molecular pathways by which Spike protein from the viral infection on top of that loaded into the body with vaccination together cause a multitude of disease processes. Nano/Liposomal Curcumin 500 mg twice daily Hence we have a heavy reliance on Base Spike Detox (BSD) for 3-12 or more months comprised of: What is happening with SARS-CoV-2 Spike protein accumulating in the human body? It is not easily cleared by human peptidases and can be found in virtually every tissue and organ. The 75% who took one or more shots ended up getting the respiratory illness when the vaccines failed them, so they have had even more exposure to the Wuhan wild type Spike protein. Many of these individuals fought very hard to avoid genetic injections, however, most have had SARS-CoV-2 infection one or more times. ![]() Approximately ~25% of the US adult population did not take a COVID-19 vaccine according to the COVID States Report. ![]()
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